3.15 Boxing Performance

The short version

Ask most people where punch power comes from and they will point at the shoulder. Put a boxer on force plates and record what actually happens, and the shoulder turns out to be a fairly minor character. Most of the difference between a hard puncher and a soft one is explained down at the feet and hips.

Boxing also has one of the oldest and most stubborn training cultures in sport — roadwork, bag rounds, and a long-running suspicion of the weight room. A lot of that tradition is genuinely sound. Some of it is quietly holding boxers back.

This article looks at what physically decides what happens in the ring: how a punch is really produced, what a round actually demands of your energy systems, which physical qualities matter for which parts of the sport, and how to fit strength work into a week that is already stuffed with skill work without ruining the skill work. It also covers weight cutting and neck strength, which are the two places the traditional approach carries real risk.

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Where a punch actually comes from

The power starts on the floor. Force is generated by the legs pushing into the ground, passed up through the hips as they rotate, through a braced trunk, and only then into the arm (Putnam, 1993). The arm is the last link in the chain, and the last link cannot add anything the earlier links did not make. What it can do is lose some of it — which is exactly why the technical work on the delivery end still matters.

So a bad stance has already cost you the punch. If you are off balance, or your weight is in the wrong place, most of the available force is gone before the hand has moved at all. No amount of arm effort recovers it.

And it means the strength work belongs in the wrong place from most people's point of view. If you want a harder punch, train the legs, hips and trunk. The arms and chest are not where the problem is.

Then there is what happens at the moment of contact. How much you deliver depends on how fast the fist is moving and how much of your body is genuinely connected to it when it lands. That second part is not your bodyweight — it is how much of you is mechanically linked to that fist at the instant of impact. A rigid wrist, a braced trunk and a solid stance raise it. A loose chain gives it away.

Force leaks, and it leaks at predictable places. A soft trunk, an unstable lead foot, and a wrist that folds on contact are the usual three. Each one lets some of what your legs produced disappear on the way through. Think of a hosepipe with three kinks in it: the tap is fine, the pressure is fine, but very little arrives at the other end.

Which explains two things everybody has seen. A physically strong athlete who has never boxed often punches weakly, because they have no sequencing and their chain leaks in three places. And a technically excellent lighter boxer can hit far harder than their size suggests, because their chain is tight and nearly everything the legs make actually arrives.

Boxing is intermittent work sitting on an aerobic base. The exchanges themselves are not aerobic — they are short and vicious. What your aerobic fitness decides is how quickly you are ready for the next one. Roadwork is not building the punch. It is building the recovery between punches, which is a different and equally important job.

Heavy lifting does not make boxers slow or bulky. Not at the volumes and rep ranges that suit the sport, anyway. That belief has cost a lot of fighters a lot of available force, and the evidence simply does not support it.

Rotational power is the biggest gap in traditional preparation. Almost everything a boxer does involves turning, and almost nothing in a traditional boxing programme trains turning directly. It is trainable, and it is largely untrained.

The rest of the article goes into the detail: the punch chain stage by stage, effective mass and impulse, the real energy demands of a round, how to lay out a training week alongside skill sessions, and honest guidance on weight cutting and neck resilience. Those sections are more technical, so read them when you want the mechanism rather than the map.

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The kinetic chain of a punchSix stacked stages tracing force production from ground contact through the legs, pelvis, trunk and shoulder to the fist, with the contribution of each stage noted.The kinetic chain of a punch1. Ground reaction — the rear footForce enters the system through the rear foot pushing into the floor. A boxer with no ground connection has nothing to sequence.This is why punching from a flat-footed or off-balance stance produces so little.2. Leg drive and hip extensionThe rear leg extends and drives the hip forward. Measurement studies consistently identify leg drive as a major contributor topunch force, which is why lower-body strength appears in boxing programmes.3. Pelvic rotationThe pelvis rotates towards the target ahead of the ribcage. This creates the separation that loads the trunk musculature beforeit contracts.4. Trunk rotation and transferThe ribcage follows the pelvis. The trunk is a transmission, not a generator; its job is to pass leg-generated force upwardswithout leaking it.5. Shoulder and arm extensionThe shoulder girdle protracts and the arm extends. This stage adds relatively little force but determines timing and reach.6. Fist and impactEffective mass at impact depends on how rigid the chain is at the moment of contact. A loose wrist or a soft shoulder dissipatesforce that the legs already produced.

Figure 1. A punch is a whole-body action that happens to finish at the hand. Athletes who lose to the fifth link were usually let down by the first.

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Two practical conclusions follow immediately. First, a boxer standing in a poor stance, off balance, or with their weight in the wrong place has already lost most of the available force before the punch begins. Second, strength work aimed at punch power should be aimed at the legs, hips and trunk far more than at the arms and chest (Lenetsky et al., 2013).

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Effective mass and why rigidity matters

The other half of the equation is what happens at impact. Momentum delivered to a target depends on the velocity of the fist and the effective mass behind it (Lenetsky et al., 2013). Effective mass is not body mass; it is how much of the body is mechanically coupled to the fist at the instant of contact.

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• Fist velocity How fast the hand is travelling. Determined mostly by the sequencing quality of the chain and by rate of force development in the legs and trunk.
• Effective mass The portion of body mass mechanically linked to the fist at impact. A rigid wrist, braced trunk and stable stance raise it; a loose chain lowers it.
• Impulse Force multiplied by the time over which it acts. A punch that stays on the target fractionally longer transfers more momentum than one that recoils immediately.
• Chain leakage Force produced at one link that fails to reach the next. Common leak points are a soft trunk, an unstable lead foot, and a wrist that collapses on contact.

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This explains a common observation. A physically strong athlete who has never boxed often punches weakly, because they have no sequencing and their chain leaks at three points. It also explains why a technically excellent lighter boxer can produce force that seems disproportionate to their size: Their chain is efficient, and almost everything their legs produce arrives at the target.

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What a round actually demands

Boxing is often trained as though it were a three-minute continuous effort. Time-motion analysis of competitive bouts describes something different: Short, high-intensity exchanges of roughly one to five seconds, separated by lower-intensity movement, repeated many times within the round (Davis, 2015).

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Energy system contribution across a boxing roundThree lines showing the relative contribution of the phosphagen, glycolytic and oxidative systems over the three minutes of a round.Energy system contribution across a boxing roundPhosphagen (ATP-PC)GlycolyticOxidative0:000:451:302:153:00LowModerateHighTime into the roundRelative contributionEach exchange draws on the phosphagensystemAerobic capacity determines recoverybetween exchanges

Figure 2. Boxing is an intermittent sport with an aerobic backbone. The phosphagen system fuels the exchanges, the oxidative system pays for them between exchanges, and conditioning that ignores the aerobic base leaves the boxer unable to recover inside the round.

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That structure has direct conditioning implications. The exchanges themselves are fuelled largely by stored phosphates. The ability to repeat them depends on how quickly those phosphates are resynthesised, which is an aerobic process (Chaabene, 2015; Smith, 2006). A boxer with a poor aerobic base does not fade because their punches use oxygen; they fade because they cannot recharge between exchanges.

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This is the strongest argument for retaining roadwork in some form, and also the argument for not stopping there. Long, steady running develops the aerobic base but does almost nothing for the repeat-effort quality, which needs intervals structured to resemble the actual work-to-rest pattern of the sport.

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A practical test: If a boxer is comfortable at a steady pace but cannot produce a second and third hard exchange within twenty seconds of the first, the limitation is repeat-effort capacity rather than aerobic capacity, and more miles will not fix it.

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Building the physical programme

The weight room objection, examined

The traditional objection to strength training in boxing has three parts: It will make the boxer slow, it will add weight that pushes them out of their division, and it will make them stiff. Each deserves a serious answer rather than dismissal, because each contains a grain of truth.

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On speed: Heavy strength training performed in low repetition ranges with full recovery increases force capacity without meaningfully increasing muscle size. There is no mechanism by which becoming stronger makes a movement slower, and the research on strength training in combat athletes generally shows maintained or improved velocity (Loturco, 2016; Turner, 2011). Where boxers do appear slower after starting to lift, programming is the first place to look: high-repetition bodybuilding-style work, insufficient recovery, or skill training cut to make room. Those are plausible causes rather than established ones, and they are not the only candidates — accumulated fatigue within a heavy block, a change in body mass, technique drifting under new loading, and the crudeness of how "slower" is being judged all belong on the same list.

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On weight: This concern is legitimate and requires management. Hypertrophy is driven by volume, and a boxer near the top of their division needs to keep total volume low. Three to five repetitions, three to five sets, two sessions a week, will build considerable strength with minimal mass (Turner, 2011). If mass does become a problem, reduce volume rather than abandoning the method.

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On stiffness: This is largely a myth arising from confusing muscular hypertrophy with reduced range of motion. Full-range resistance training generally maintains or improves flexibility. Where boxers do become stiff, the usual culprit is a training week with no mobility work at all rather than the presence of a barbell.

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Physical qualities mapped to boxing demandsA four column table listing seven physical qualities, the boxing demand each supports, how it is developed and how it is tested.Physical qualities mapped to boxing demandsBoxing demandPrimary developmentmethodField testCommon errorMaximal strengthUnderpins all powerexpressionHeavy compound lifting,3–5 reps3RM squat or trap bardeadliftAvoided for fear ofadding weightRate of force developmentPunch acceleration,explosive footworkBallistic and plyometricworkCountermovement jumpTrained only withpunching itselfRotational powerForce transfer throughthe trunkRotational medicine ballthrowsSeated rotational throwdistanceReplaced with high-repcrunchesAerobic capacityRecovery betweenexchanges and roundsZone 2 work plusinterval trainingYo-Yo test or 2 km timetrialLong slow running onlyRepeat-effort capacitySustaining output acrosslate roundsShort intervals matchedto exchange lengthsRepeat sprint or baginterval protocolNot distinguished fromaerobic workEccentric and brakingstrengthStopping, pivoting,absorbingEccentric-emphasis andlateral workSingle-leg landingcontrolIgnored entirelyNeck and trunk resilienceTolerating impact androtationProgressive isometricand isotonic loadingIsometric neck enduranceholdLeft to chance

Figure 3. Boxing conditioning has a long tradition of running miles and hitting bags. Both have a place, but neither addresses most of this table.

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Training rotational power specifically

The trunk in boxing is a transmission. Its job is to pass force from the hips to the shoulder girdle without losing it, and to do so while rotating at high velocity (Putnam, 1993). Traditional boxing core work, dominated by high-repetition sit-ups and crunches, trains neither of those things.

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What the trunk needs is the ability to resist unwanted movement in some planes while producing rapid rotation in another. That means anti-rotation and anti-extension work for the stiffness component, and loaded rotational throwing for the velocity component.

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1. Anti-rotation: Pallof press variations, held for time, building the ability to resist trunk rotation under load.
2. Anti-extension: Dead bugs, ab rollouts and loaded carries, developing the bracing that prevents leakage during hip drive.
3. Rotational velocity: Standing and half-kneeling medicine ball throws, three to five kilograms, low repetitions at maximal intent.
4. Rotational strength: Cable chops and lifts at moderate load, developing the capacity that the throws express.

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The volume here should be far lower than boxers are used to. Twenty to forty high-intent rotational throws per session, not two hundred sit-ups. The quality being trained is power, and power sessions are short by definition.

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One asymmetry consideration: Boxers rotate towards their target predominantly in one direction, driven by their stance. Programming rotational work equally in both directions is worth doing for tissue balance, even though performance itself is one-sided.

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Conditioning that matches the sport

A defensible conditioning programme for a boxer has two distinct components, and confusing them is the most common error.

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• Aerobic development Builds the capacity that pays back the phosphagen system between exchanges. Best developed with continuous work at conversational intensity, plus some higher-intensity aerobic intervals. Two to three sessions a week in general preparation, reducing in-season.
• Repeat-effort capacity The ability to produce a hard exchange, recover briefly, and produce another. Developed with short intervals of five to fifteen seconds at high intensity with incomplete recovery, structured to mirror the actual round (Davis, 2015).
• Round-specific conditioning Bag or pad rounds run at competition intensity with competition rest. This is where conditioning and skill overlap, and it should form the bulk of in-season conditioning.
• Glycolytic tolerance Sustained high-intensity efforts of thirty seconds to two minutes. Useful in small doses for late-round capacity, extremely costly to recover from, and easy to overuse.

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The traditional early-morning five-mile run develops the first of these and nothing else. It is not useless; the aerobic base is genuinely important, and the discipline has value. But a boxer whose entire conditioning programme is roadwork is prepared for a sport that does not exist.

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A reasonable weekly structure in general preparation might be one longer aerobic session, one aerobic interval session, and two or three repeat-effort or round-specific sessions integrated with skill work (Turner, 2011). In-season, the aerobic sessions reduce and the round-specific work dominates.

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Neck strength and head impact

This section is included because it is systematically neglected and because the mechanism is well understood. When a punch lands on the head, the resulting acceleration of the skull depends partly on how much mass is coupled to it and how well that mass resists movement. A stronger, stiffer neck reduces the head acceleration produced by a given impact (Eckner, 2014).

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The evidence linking neck strength to reduced concussion incidence in humans is suggestive rather than conclusive, and it would be dishonest to present neck training as protective in a guaranteed sense (Collins, 2014). What is better established is the biomechanical relationship: Greater neck stiffness reduces head kinematics for a given force. That is a reasonable basis for training it, given the cost is low.

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• Isometric holds in flexion, extension and both lateral directions, building from short holds to sustained ones.
• Controlled isotonic work through range with light resistance, progressed slowly.
• Anticipatory bracing drills, since a braced neck behaves very differently from a relaxed one.
• Progression measured in months, not weeks, because the tissue tolerates load slowly.

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Neck training should never be performed with ballistic loading or through end-range motion under resistance. Progress conservatively, and if a boxer has any history of cervical injury, this work belongs with a clinician.

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Nothing in this section substitutes for the primary protections: Competent officiating, sensible sparring volume, proper medical oversight, and honest reporting of symptoms. Reduced sparring volume is by a wide margin the most effective intervention available for cumulative head impact exposure.

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Weight management without the damage

Boxing’s weight-cutting culture is the area where the traditional approach carries the clearest risk. Acute dehydration to make weight impairs performance, degrades thermoregulation and cognition, and there is a plausible mechanism by which reduced cerebrospinal fluid volume increases vulnerability to head impact (Franchini et al., 2012; Barley et al., 2019).

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The sensible position is that the majority of weight management should be chronic rather than acute. A boxer who arrives at camp within a few per cent of their competing weight can make the division with a modest, well-managed final adjustment. A boxer who arrives ten per cent over will do damage to themselves getting there.

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1. Establish a realistic division based on off-season weight, not on the lowest number ever achieved.
2. Manage body composition gradually across the year rather than in the final weeks.
3. Keep the final acute reduction small and manage it with qualified support.
4. Prioritise rehydration and refuelling in the window between weigh-in and competition.
5. Treat repeated large cuts as a signal to move up a division rather than a badge of professionalism.

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This is an area where a coach should defer to appropriately qualified medical and nutrition support rather than improvising. The consequences of getting it wrong range from a poor performance to genuine harm.

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Fitting it into a real week

The constraint in boxing is not knowing what to train. It is that the week is already full. Every physical session added competes with skill work and sparring for the same recovery budget.

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A boxing training week in balanceA four-part cycle showing skill work, physical development, conditioning and recovery arranged around a central organising principle.A boxing training week in balanceThe weekly budgetSkill and sparringThe non-negotiable centre.Technical work, pads, andcontrolled sparring drive most ofthe adaptation that matters.Strength and powerTwo sessions weekly. Heavy compoundwork plus ballistic and rotationalthrows, kept short and placed awayfrom hard sparring.ConditioningOne aerobic development session andone repeat-effort session, matchedto the work-to-rest structure ofthe sport.Recovery and resilienceSleep, nutrition, neck and jointwork, and at least one genuinelylow day. This is the element thatgets cut first and should not be.

Figure 4. The four elements compete for the same recovery budget. Boxers who add strength work without removing anything tend to accumulate fatigue, and the strength work is what gets blamed.

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A general preparation week

• Monday: Skill and technical work, then strength session A (heavy lower body, rotational throws).
• Tuesday: Aerobic development session, light technical work.
• Wednesday: Sparring, then short repeat-effort conditioning.
• Thursday: Recovery day, mobility, neck work.
• Friday: Skill and pads, then strength session B (heavy upper body, ballistic work).
• Saturday: Round-specific conditioning on bag and pads.
• Sunday: Complete rest.

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What each element in the week is doing

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• Skill and technical work (Monday). Placed first in the week and first in the session, because punch mechanics are a coordination quality and coordination degrades with fatigue faster than strength does.
• Strength session A, heavy lower body. Punching force originates at the floor. Heavy squatting and hinging build the leg drive and hip extension force that a rotational chain can transmit.
• Rotational throws. Express that force at boxing-relevant velocity through the trunk, training the sequence rather than the individual links.
• Aerobic development session (Tuesday). Determines between-round recovery and how quickly heart rate falls in the minute of rest. This is the single largest separator between conditioned and unconditioned boxers.
• Light technical work. Maintains skill exposure without adding fatigue on an aerobic day.
• Sparring (Wednesday). The only exposure that trains decision-making against a genuinely resisting opponent, and therefore the exposure the rest of the week is arranged around.
• Short repeat-effort conditioning. Trains repeated near-maximal output with incomplete recovery, matching the demand of a hard exchange late in a round.
• Recovery day, mobility, neck work (Thursday). Neck strength reduces head acceleration on impact and is trained on a low day because its fatigue cost is local.
• Skill and pads with strength session B (Friday). Pads rehearse combinations at speed. Session B rotates emphasis to the upper body so the lower body recovers from Monday.
• Ballistic work. Trains the rate of force development that separates a fast hand from a strong one. Load stays light enough that velocity is never compromised.
• Round-specific conditioning on bag and pads (Saturday). Puts the physiological demand into the exact work-to-rest structure of competition, so the adaptation is specific rather than general.
• Complete rest (Sunday). Skill retention and strength adaptation both require a day with no stimulus at all.

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A competition-phase week

• Strength reduces to one short maintenance session, kept heavy and very low volume.
• Conditioning becomes almost entirely round-specific.
• Sparring volume is managed carefully and reduced in the final ten days.
• Neck and mobility work continues unchanged, because it costs almost nothing.
• The final week contains no new stimulus of any kind.

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Two placement rules matter more than the exact content. Strength work goes on the same day as hard skill work rather than the day after, so that easy days stay genuinely easy. And nothing hard goes the day before sparring, because sparring is the session that produces the most sport-specific adaptation and it should be performed fresh.

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If something has to be cut, cut conditioning volume before skill volume, and cut strength volume before either. Skill is what wins fights; physical qualities raise the ceiling on how well skill can be expressed.

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Sport applications

Amateur boxing, with its shorter rounds and higher output rate, tilts the balance further towards repeat-effort capacity and away from late-round glycolytic tolerance.

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Professional boxing over ten or twelve rounds places more weight on aerobic capacity and on pacing, and makes the durability of technique under fatigue a central physical concern.

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Heavier divisions gain proportionally more from strength and rate of force development work, since absolute force matters more when the athlete is not constrained by a low weight limit.

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Lighter divisions are usually limited by repeat-effort capacity and output rate rather than by peak force, and their conditioning should reflect that.

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Kickboxing and Muay Thai add substantial lower-limb power and single-leg stability demands, and the plyometric content of the programme should increase accordingly.

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Common mistakes

• Training the arms for punch power. Most of the force originates at the feet and hips. Bench pressing more will not fix a boxer who does not drive from the ground.
• Doing hundreds of sit-ups as core work. The trunk’s job in boxing is to transmit force and resist unwanted rotation. High-repetition flexion trains neither.
• Treating roadwork as complete conditioning. Steady running builds the aerobic base and does not develop repeat-effort capacity, which is what actually fails in the later rounds.
• Adding strength work without removing anything. The week is already full. Boxers who add two sessions on top of an unchanged schedule get more tired, perform worse, and conclude that lifting does not work.
• Chasing a division through acute dehydration. Large last-minute cuts impair performance and carry real health risk. Manage weight across the year instead.
• Neglecting the neck entirely. It is cheap to train, the biomechanical rationale is sound, and almost nobody does it.
• Sparring hard too often. Sparring volume is the largest modifiable contributor to cumulative head impact exposure, and hard sparring is not the only way to develop timing.
• Doing power work when fatigued. Rotational throws and ballistic work performed at the end of a session train a slow pattern. Place them early or not at all.

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Coaching cues

• "Punch from the floor" to redirect attention to the first link of the chain.
• "Turn the back foot" as the simplest correction for absent hip rotation.
• "Fist tight at the last moment" to raise effective mass without carrying tension throughout.
• "Hips before hands" for sequencing.
• "Land it, do not lean on it" to keep balance available for the next action.
• "Breathe on every shot" to prevent breath-holding through exchanges.
• "Recover between, not during" to frame the repeat-effort quality.
• "Heavy and few" as the rule for strength sessions in camp.

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FAQs

Will lifting weights make me slower as a boxer?

Not if it is programmed appropriately. Low-repetition, heavy work with full recovery increases force capacity without adding meaningful size, and there is no mechanism by which greater force capacity slows a movement down. Where a boxer does slow down after starting to lift, the likeliest explanations are programming ones — high-repetition bodybuilding work, recovery cut too thin, or skill training displaced — but fatigue, a change in body mass, technique drift and how speed is being measured are plausible alternatives rather than excluded ones.

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How much running should a boxer do?

Enough to build and maintain an aerobic base, which for most boxers is one longer session and one interval session per week in general preparation, reducing in camp. Beyond that, additional mileage has diminishing returns and competes with the repeat-effort and round-specific work that matters more.

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What is the best exercise for punch power?

There is no single one, but if forced to choose, rotational medicine ball throws combined with heavy lower-body strength work address the two links that contribute most. The rest of the answer is technical: Sequencing and chain rigidity determine how much of that force reaches the target.

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Should boxers train the neck?

The biomechanical case is sound: A stiffer neck reduces head acceleration for a given impact. The evidence that this translates into fewer concussions in humans is suggestive rather than conclusive, so it should be presented as a sensible precaution rather than a guarantee. Given how cheap it is to train, it belongs in the programme. Progress it slowly and involve a clinician if there is any cervical injury history.

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How many strength sessions per week during camp?

One to two, kept short and heavy with very low volume. The purpose in camp is maintenance, not development. Development belongs in the general preparation phase when skill and sparring loads are lower.

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Is heavy bag work good conditioning?

It is excellent round-specific conditioning when performed at genuine competition intensity with competition rest intervals. It is much less useful when performed as steady, moderate-intensity work for many rounds, which is how it is most often done.

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How should I approach making weight?

Chronically rather than acutely. Aim to be within a few per cent of your competing weight before camp starts, so the final adjustment is small. Large last-minute cuts impair performance and carry real health risks, and repeated large cuts are a signal to move up a division. Get qualified nutrition and medical support rather than improvising.

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Can I train strength and conditioning on the same day as sparring?

Yes, and it is usually better than spreading them across more days. Put the hard sessions on the same day so that easy days remain genuinely easy. The exception is that nothing hard should be placed the day before sparring, because sparring should be performed fresh.

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Recommended videos

Each video below was chosen because it covers a specific part of this article in more depth than text alone allows.

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Related reading on FitXplor

• 3.12 Medicine Ball and Ballistic Training
• 2.5 Power Development and Explosive Strength
• 3.13 Reaction Time and Reactive Agility
• 1.4 Exercise Physiology and Energy Systems
• 4.7 The Spine and Core: Bracing, Stiffness, and Force Transfer
• 2.2 Maximum Strength Development
• 2.3 Relative Strength and Power-to-Weight Ratio
• 1.7 Recovery Science and Adaptation

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References

Lenetsky, S., Harris, N., Brughelli, M. (2013). Assessment and contributors of punching forces in combat sports athletes. Strength and Conditioning Journal.

Chaabene, H. et al. (2015). Physical and physiological attributes of elite boxers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.

Loturco, I. et al. (2016). Punching impact and upper-body muscle strength and power in elite amateur boxers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.

Davis, P. et al. (2015). The activity profile of elite male amateur boxing. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance.

Smith, M.S. (2006). Physiological profile of senior and junior England international amateur boxers. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine.

Turner, A. et al. (2011). Strength and conditioning for boxing. Strength and Conditioning Journal.

Eckner, J.T. et al. (2014). Effect of neck muscle strength and anticipatory cervical muscle activation on the kinematic response of the head to impulsive loads. American Journal of Sports Medicine.

Collins, C.L. et al. (2014). Neck strength: a protective factor reducing risk for concussion in high school sports. Journal of Primary Prevention.

Barley, O.R., Chapman, D.W., Abbiss, C.R. (2019). The current state of weight-cutting in combat sports. Sports.

Franchini, E., Brito, C.J., Artioli, G.G. (2012). Weight loss in combat sports: physiological, psychological and performance effects. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition.

Putnam, C.A. (1993). Sequential motions of body segments in striking and throwing skills. Journal of Biomechanics.

Bianco, M. et al. (2013). Amateur boxing in the last 59 years: impact of rules changes on the type of verdicts recorded. British Journal of Sports Medicine.